Chapter 6 Physical Education Class XII

Chapter 6: Women and Sports

History of Women in Sports:

First Olympics 1886- Women were not even allowed to watch.

Olympics 1900- First time women participation (in two events)

Olympics 1952- Four Indian women participated (Kunjarani Devi)

Olympics 1984- P.T.Usha

Olympics 2000- Karnam Malleshwari- Bronze

Olympics 2012- Saina Nehwal ( Bronze), Mary Kom ( Bronze)

Reasons of less participation of Women in sports:

1. Male dominated culture of sports- women who participate in sports are not seen as feminine hence are discouraged to participate.
2. Attitude and prejudice towards sportswomen. They prefer aesthetics related sports like gymnastics, yoga and aerobics than rugged and traditional ones.
3. Body image- Women are usually more self-conscious and uncomfortable to don sports gear.
4. Lack of self-confidence- Due to years of social wiring
5. Parental and adult influence- In most cultures parents lay stress on girls acquiring more of self-comparison and approval of elders and boys rely more on competitive outcomes, physical competence and personal judgement.
6. Lack of role-models- It is a cycle that less women in sports leads to less role models to inspire more women to follow.
7. Personal safety- Sports field not adequately equipped to provide women safety- many women coaches, safe venues, sports complexes and secure transport etc.
8. Less funding- attracted by women sports
9. Access to facilities
10. Clothing and equipment

Physiological changes in women and their impact on sports:

Menarche: starts typically at the peak of adolescent growth. This follows the physical changes in the body of a girl. These changes make them self-conscious. There are also some beliefs that strenuous exercises can adversely impact health risks to female productive system.

Causes of early menarche-

Childhood obesity

Low birth weight

Exposure to smoking

Lack of exercise

Inadequate diet

Genetic

Menstrual cycle: Normal cycle is 28 days, though may vary between 22 to 36 days. While some women may not face any change or abnormality during the period, some could feel considerable difficulty- like mood swings, fluid retention, breast tenderness, abdominal pain, headaches and fatigue. This can reduce their aerobic capacity and strength during this period, impacting the sports performance.

Factors like stress, diet and heavy exercise may affect their cycle.

Pregnancy: lasts around 40 weeks from Last mensural period to child birth. This duration may include nausea, vomiting, hunger and frequent urination. In addition, women may feel anxious and stressed when expecting. To stay fit physically and mentally through the pregnancy, one should regularly exercise as advised by the doctor.

Benefits of exercise during pregnancy: ( should be done under supervision of the expert.

1. Exercise also helps in keeping them in good health and prevent backaches, cramps and breathlessness.
2. Promote positive mood
3. Enhanced energy levels and reduced stress
4. Cope with weight gain
5. Improves posture and keeps back muscles strengthened
6. Decrease constipation, bloating and swelling
7. Reduces blood pressure
8. Makes it easier to regain prep-pregnancy fitness

Pregnancy and sports: While exercise is proven to be beneficial, competing in sports during this period is still controversial. A number of athletes have also competed while being pregnant – Volleyball player Kerry Walsh. WNBA athlete Candace Parker, LGPA player Catriona Matthew who won the Brazil Cup when she was 5 months pregnant.

However, a number of factors need to be taken into consideration, including the age and fitness level, competition level, physical demands of the sport and risk factors involved, also advise of the physician at that stage.

Menopause: It is indicated by the end of menstrual cycles and usually occur between 40 to 59 years (normally around 50 years of age).

Symptoms: Physical and emotional- night sweats, tiredness, depression, mood changes, fatigue and irritability.

Menopause and sports: Exercise can play a positive role during this period. Cycling, brisk walking, swimming, water aerobics, yoga are recommended. It not only keeps them active and healthy in later years but also reduce risks to many ailments like breast cancer and overweight.

Female Athlete Triad (Anaemia, Osteoporosis and Amenorrhea)

This was described by the Women’s task force of the ‘American College of Sports Medicine’ in 1992.

These consist of 3 conditions:

Anaemia: Disordered eating, lack of nutrition.

Osteoporosis: Low bone mass, leading to weak bones and risk of fractures.

Amenorrhea: Irregular or absent periods

Who is affected?:

Anyone may be affected, but women and girls participating in activities which emphasize leanness are at especially at risk.

Triad Factor #1: Anaemia- Disordered Eating:

Most women athletes try to lose weight as a way to improve their athletic performance. The disordered eating further accompanied with other Triad conditions can lead from not eating enough calories to keep up with energy demands to avoiding certain type of foods the athlete thinks are Bad ( Fat containing) and sometimes serious disorders like anaemia, bulimia and anorexia nervosa.

Anemia- is a condition in which there is a decrease in red blood cells and hemoglobin in the body. Lowered body ability to carry oxygen.

Symptoms:

Feeling tired

Weakness

Shortness of breath

Poor ability to exercise

Increased thirst

Feeling like going to pass out

Confusion

3 main types of Anaemia:

1. Due to blood loss
2. Decreased Red blood cells production
3. Increased Red blood cells breakdown

Normal Haemoglobin for men: 13 to 14 g/dL

Normal Haemoglobin for women: 12 to 14 g/dL

Triad Disorder #2 : Osteoporosis

Estrogen is lower in girls with female athlete triad. Lower level of estrogen and poor nutrition, especially low calcium, Vit D intake can lead to Osteoporosis.

This condition causes weakening of bones due to loss of bone density and improper bone formation. Hence can ruin a female athlete’s career because of stress fractures and injuries.

Women should take calcium rich food in their teens to begin with as that is their stage of building highest bone mass- Called peak bone mass. This can have a lasting effect later in life. Also sufficient intake of calcium and Vit D close to menopause stage is very important.

Muscle strengthening exercises recommended for Osteoporosis patients:

1. Standing and rising on toes
2. Lifting of weights
3. Exercises with equipment- elastic bands etc
4. Balanced posture and exercises like- climbing stairs, yoga
5. Pilates for flexibility- to avoid fractures

Triad Disorder #3: Amenorrhea

Exercising excessively and not eating enough calories can lead to decrease in hormones that help regulate mensural cycle. As a result a girl’s periods may become regular or stop altogether.

Symptoms:

• Weight loss
• No or irregular periods
• Fatigue and decreased ability to concentrate
• Stress fractures (fractures without even any significant injury)
• Other injuries

How to prevent Triad:

• Coaches, parents and health professionals to put less pressure of unrealistically low body weights
• Coaches and trainers should watch out for any warning signs of eating disorders in their athletes
• Should guide athletes a complete nutritional diet and exercise
• Out of competition “weight-ins” should be discouraged.

Factors that help Female participation in Sports:

Psychological:

1. Body image
2. Self-confidence
3. Gender role orientation
4. Discourage Depression- sports encourage women to live a positive and healthy life.
5. Manage aggression- through sports

Social:

1. Role of family
2. Role of friends
3. Role of school
4. Role of culture

 

Chapter 4- Postures

Posture is the position of body:

• Static or dynamic such as sitting, standing, lying, walking, running etc,
• Which causes minimum stress, least fatigue to muscles, effortless.
• Maximum output or efficiency can be attained.

Mechanics of Correct Posture:

• Require normal muscle tone
• Mechanised freedom
• Better coordination
• Neuro-muscular control
• All axes of our body are parallel to a vertical line- abdomen in, chest held high, chin up and shoulders erect.

We are subjected to strain of holding up our body weight, while standing, walking and carrying out any posture/activity against gravity. This consumes energy. Hence correct posture is when center of gravity of our body is aligned best to cause least strain.

Correct posture in different activities:

Standing– Balance and free from muscular and ligament strain. Line of gravity of center of head, chest, abdomen and pelvic fall in straight line. Weight equally distributed between the ball of the foot and heel.

Sitting- Body parts- head, shoulder and hip should be in alignment. Hip at the back of the chair, head and spinal cord should be straight and erect. Thighs in horizontal position and feet should touch the ground. Weight should be spread over a vast area to reduce strain.

Walking- Lines of the feet should be parallel to the line of walking direction. The heel should touch the ground first and then weight be transferred to the toe.

Lying- Pillow under the head, lie in supine position, posture should be free from respiratory trouble and blockages.

Advantages of correct posture:

• Physical appearance
• Grace and efficiency of movement
• Physical fitness
• Health value
• Social value- correct posture enables higher involvement in social activities- sports, parties, function.
• Economic value- dynamic and fast n fatigue free movements enhance physical agility and efficiency at work leading to better results in generating economic output.
• Prevents disorder and disease- constipation, diarrhea, flatulence, disturbance in circulation and nervous irritability are partially some of the outcomes of bad posture.
• Change in mental attitude- Self confidence, self motivation, determination.
• Lessens fatigue
• Improves speech- leads to ability to express him/herself effectively in society and hence lives a fulfilled life.
• Body functions efficiency- min stress
• Minimized friction

Causes of bad posture:

Injury

Disease

Habit

Heredity

Malnourishment

Overload

Lack of exercise

Obesity

 

Common postural deformities

Spinal curvature

Deformity type	Sub type	Detail	Causes	Remedies	Exercises
Spinal Curvature	Kyphosis	Round upper neck is the exaggeration of normal curve- slouching posture, flat /depressed chest, dropping head, protruding abdomen	Poor posture at work Faulty furniture Wrong/prolonged sitting habit Standing/waling with heavy load on shoulders	1.Always change sides from time to time 2.Sitting- buttocks should always touch the back of the chair 3.While looking upwards- hands should be held together behind the back   4.Pillow under the head while sleeping	Exercise 1.to strengthen muscle girdle, 2.lengthen chest muscles, 3.flexibility of shoulders- Yoga specific to these parts Dhanurasana Matyasana Bujangasana
Spinal Curvature	Lordosis	Inward curvature of spine. Lumber region has an increased forward curve. Lower part of spine become shorter, abdominal muscles become longer & move forward	Uneven environment Improper development of muscles Obesity Imbalanced diet Diseases related to vertebrae & spine muscles	1.Balanced diet 2. Avoid obesity 3.Carry weight in a straight position	Exercises: 1.stand, bend forward from the hip, repeat several times 2.Lie down on back, raise hands & legs simultaneously 3.Sit-ups Halasana (lie with legs raised at 45 deg 4.Toe touching exercises
Spinal Curvature	Scoliosis	Exaggerated lateral curvature of spine	Underdeveloped legs Rickets Infantile paralysis Heavy load on one shoulder Abnormality of vertebrae/muscles/nerves	Avoid sideways bending while reading/studying Avoid walking with heavy weight on one side for long time	1.Bending to the opposite side of C curve 2.Holding on horizontal bars & letting the body hang 3.And swing to sides 4.Swimming- breast stroke
Flat Foot		A condition where arch of the foot is flattened. No marked curve at the base of the foot. People with flat foot can not perform well in sports activities as they may feel pain in continuous running/standing	1.Wearing ill-fitting shoes 2.Narrow and tight shoes (women) constrictive. 3.Weak muscles 4.Persons carrying load on one side 5.Children may get this while walking	1.Avoid wearing tight shoes with high heels. 2.Children should not be forced to walk earlier than their natural stage 3. Walking on the inner & outer side of the feet and on toes	1.Jumping on toes 2.Perform Ups & Downs of heels 3. Skipping on ropes Yoga- Vajrasana
Knock-knees	A condition where No space between thighs and knees touch each-other while standing straight	People with Knock-knees cannot perform well in many sports activities as they are unable to run/walk fast.	1.Weak muscles, ligaments 2. Knee region bones are soft 3. Excessive pressure while standing/moving 4. Lack of balanced diet 5. Lack of Vit D, Calcium, Phosphorus 6. Rickets and obesity	1.Balanced diet with Vit D 2. Children should not be allowed to walk at an early stage 4. Keep pillow between the knees sometimes 5. Use walking calipers	1. Engage in horse riding activity. 2.Yoga- Padamasana, Gomukhasana
Bow legs/ Rickets	Knees deformed in opposite direction to Knock-knees	Lower bones get bent> result in unnatural gait> uneasiness while walking/running	1.Vit D, Calcium, phosphorus deficiency 2.Soft long bones of legs 3. Overweight children 4. Uneven walking and running	1.Vit D 2. Walking on the inner edge of feed 3. Walking with toe bent inwards.
Round shoulders	Ears and shoulders are not in line with each other	When body leans forward, it creates round shoulders	1.Weakness in muscles 2. Shortness of pectoral ( chest) muscles 3. Doing things with bent position 4. Wearing tight clothes 5. Using uneven furniture 6. Lack of proper exercise for shoulders	1.Avoid bending while sitting, walking, standing. 2. Avoid tight clothes 3. Proper furniture	1. Keep tips of fingers on your shoulders and circle elbows clock/anti-clockwise 2. Exercise on horizontal bar 3. Yoga- Chakraasana, Dhanurasana

 

 

Normal                                                 Kyphosis                              Lordosis                               Scoliosis

 

 

 

Chapter 3 Physical Education Class XII

Chapter 3: Sports and Nutrition

Sports and Nutrition relation:

To take part in sports one needs to be fit, healthy and energetic. For this a balanced nutritional diet is very important which contains required amount of carbohydrates for energy, fat for joint mobility, vitamins and minerals to keep you disease free and protein to build strong muscle strength.

Nutrition:

Is science of food and its relationship to health. Food is an essential mixture of various substances we consume, whereas Nutrition is a dynamic process in which body is made healthy by consumption of right quantity and quality of food.

Factors affecting a balanced diet:

Age– Younger children require good amount of food -more protein and fat in comparison to older people as they need to:

• Grow healthy
• Develop muscle strength
• Manage high physical activity- sports, workout and other tasks
• They enjoy better digestive system
• Older people have weak digestive systems and less physical activity

Sex- Male members have larger bodies, more muscles and body weights, hence more diet.

Females have comparatively smaller body size, slender bones and lean muscles, hence require lesser diet.

Macro and Micro nutrition:

 

Macro Nutrients: Body consumes in high quantity

Nutrition type	Main substances	Foods containing the nutrient	Good for	Harmful for
Carbohydrates (4calories/gram)	Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides	Rice, Noodles, Breads, Grains	Energy, strength	Overconsumption
Proteins (4calories/gram) (nitrogenous food)	Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur	Vegetables, milk products, pulses, eggs, meats	Transform to aminoacids, body needs ( min 9 types)-Healthy body, blood, muscles, skin, hair
Fats (9calories/gram)	Carbon (76%), Oxygen (12%), Hydrogen(12%) Saturated & Unsaturated ( Mono & Poly unsaturated)	Oils, Butter, Milk products, Saturated- fast foods, pastries, biscuits	Keep us warm, protection of organs, production of hormones. Mono & Poly unsaturated fats lower cholesterol in blood.	Overconsumption of saturated fats can lead to heart diseases, high cholesterol in blood.
Water	Body contains-70% Blood contains-90% water		Regulates body temperature, transporting nutrient to all parts, helps in excretion of waste

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nutrition type	Main substances	Foods containing the nutrient	Good for	Deficiency can cause
Macro-minerals	Calcium	Cheese, milk, orange juice, eggs, yogurt, green leafy vegetables, cereals	Bones , teeth, blood clotting	Rickets
	Potassium	Banana, tomatoes, peanuts, citrus fruits, green leafy veggies	Nervous impulses, muscular system active, water maintenance in body tissues
	Sodium	Table salt, pickle, butter	Nervous impulses, muscular system active	Excess can cause high blood pressure
	Magnesium	Meat, brown rice, beans, whole grains	Repairs & maintains body cells
	Phosphorus	Egg, fish, cod-liver oil, milk, unpolished rice	Formation of bones and teeth. Muscle and nervous system active

 

Micro-minerals	Iron	Meat, liver, egg, dry fruit, spinach, green veggies, banana	Haemoglobin	anaemia
	Chromium	Carrots, soyabeans, black gram, tomato, ground nut, bajra, barley	Insulin production	diabetes
	Copper	Eggs, pulses, green veggies	Enables iron to produce Haemoglobin	anaemia
	Cobalt	Milk , meat	Protects from anaemia

 

Fat soluble Vitamins	Vitamin A ( Yellow substance)	(Ultraviolet rays can destroy the vit.) Ghee, milk, egg, curd, fish, papaya, carrot	Helps in growth and protects from communicable diseases	Night blindness, Xeropthalmia, dry skin, yellow teeth
	Vitamin D ( white odourless)		Good teeth, healthy bones- restores calcium, phosphorus	Rickets, ill-shaped teeth, softness of bones
	Vitamin E	Green veggies, sprout seeds, coconut oil, egg yolk, maize	Increases fertility (sex hormones), function of adrenaline	Can cause death of child in womb (miscarriage, abortion)
	Vitamin K	Cauliflower, spinach, tomato, potato	Coagulation of blood	Can cause anaemia
Water soluble Vitamins
Vitamin B complex	B1- Thiamine	Fruits, veggies, dairy	Converts blood sugar into energy	Beri-Beri ( weight loss, weakness in legs/arms, pain, inflammation
	B2-Riboflavin	Fruits, veggies, meat, eggs, nuts, legume seeds	Growth & reproduction. Is an antioxidant.	Eye problem, inflammation of tongue, cracked lips, greasy, scaly, dry skin. Photophobia
	B3-Niacin	Fruits, veggies, dairy	Increases hormones, energy, nervous system	Pellagra disease, indigestion, fatigue, vomiting, depression.
	B5-Pantothenic acid	Fruits, veggies	Healing wounds, fights infections	Acne on face, depression, numbness, muscle cramps, fatigue
	B6-Pyridoxin	Fruits, veggies, legumes, nuts	Produce white blood cells & antibodies	Paediatric disease, weakness, confusion, insomnia, seizures, itchy, skin, greasy, peeling skin
	B7-Biotin	Grain, fruit, dairy		Skin inflammation, hyperesthesia in children, keratin junctivities, anaemia
	B9-Folic acid	Cereals, citrus, dark green veggies	Essential for Red blood cells. Protects against abnormalities	Anaemia, forgetfulness, weakness
	B12-	Meat, poultry, eggs, dairy	Red blood cells	Paralysis, lack of memory retention, celiac disease
Vitamin	C- Ascorbic acid	Lemons, pineapples, grapes, oranges, tomatoes	Helps absorb iron & calcium. Connecting tissues.	Scurvy. Blood flows from gums

 

Non- Nutritive Components of diet– No nutritional value in form of energy or calories. Designed to make the food taste, smell, look better and last longer.

Fibre/Roughage 30gms/day	Undigested part of food- 1. Soluble in water. 2. Insoluble		Soluble reduces blood sugar fluctuation, lowers cholesterol, prevents cancer. Insoluble- adds bulk to food, stool softener
Preservatives	Substances that stop/slow down microbial growth in food		Prevent food from contamination	Addictive
Food dyes	HPCL method for quality control		Give colour to foods	Can be harmful if used in excess or inedible substances
Flavour components	Can be both nutritive & non nutritive	Acidic- sour taste Alkaline- bitter taste
Artificial Sweetners			Maintain desired taste at low calorie value. Good for diabetic patients	Some synthetic substances can be harmful with excessive use
Water	80% in body. Excreted from body in urine, sweat, faeces, water vapour		Significant in excretion Regulates body temperature
Fragrance	Spices, artificial flavours			Excess use can cause difficulty in digestion

 

Role of diet on athlete’s performance:

An athlete needs 3500 to 7500 calories depending on the sport he/she s involved in.

Fat – nominal else it hinders the performance, as fat takes more time to digest.

Complex- Carbohydrates– required to maintain energy that s stored in the body. (glycogen stored in the muscles).

Protein– for growth and development of various tissues in the body. Fuel for muscular work. A protein content food immediately after a performance helps repair body and grow muscles.

Hydration– A fully hydrated body does not get fatigue during the activity and maximizes the physical capability.

Vitamins– For keeping athletes disease free and improving performance ( Vit B complex)

Minerals- improve performance, whereas excess may be harmful in case of some minerals like sodium and chloride.

Method to calculate BMI-

Body weight in KGs divided by Height in meters square:

Body Mass Index= Weight in KGs/ (Height in meters) ^2

Tejas ‘s BMI= 71/ (1.73X 1.73)= 23.74

Standards:

Category             BMI

Underweight       <18.5

Normal weight   18.5-24.9

Over weight        25 – 29.9

Obesity class I     30-34.9

Obesity class II    35-39.9

Obesity class III   >40

Methods to control body weight:

• Balanced diet
• Lot of fibrous food
• Avoid fats
• Physical activity
• Avoid junk food
• Drink water
• Avoid spicy food
• Regular medical checkup
• Medicine only by doctor’s advice
• Avoid drinking
• Bring out support
• Yogic exercises

Pitfalls of dieting:

1. Crash dieting– involves rapid weight loss due to eating up the limited source of carbohydrates ( glycogen) > Reduces water content> negatively impacts metabolism > leads to creating harmful cholesterol> health and heart problems
2. Excessive restrictions of certain food groups- Increases cravings or impaired functioning. Important to note the nutrition and importance of each food group and accordingly balance quality and quantity of food.
3. Small and consistent steps- towards healthy diet and good lifestyle.

Food intolerance-

Definition- Amount of certain elements our body can tolerate. If we eat more than that quantity, food intolerance surfaces.

Reason- Partial or complete absence of certain enzymes responsible for breaking down or absorbing food elements. Can be diet related or due to illness.

Common elements of food allergies or intolerances:

Peanut, fish, shellfish, wheat, treenuts (walnuts, pecan, almonds), milk, eggs

Symptoms:

• Indigestion, of histamine, swelling, shortness of breath.
• Skin rashes, eczema, asthama, nasal congestion, mouth ulcer, constipation, gas and unproductive cough
• Fructose or lactose intolerance the person will feel bloated, experience flatulence, stomachache, diarrhea, vomiting
• In celiac disease, person feels iron and vitamin deficiency, oedema and general malaise.

Managing food intolerance:

• Exclude the intolerant element
• If intolerant element is not known, person should seek expert advice
• Once ailment is diagnosed, suitable therapy should be applied.

(fructose/Lactose/Histamine intolerance therapy)

Sports nutrition:

Sports Activity	Sports type	Diet before competition	Diet during competition	Diet after competition
Endurance	Marathon, Basketball, Football, Hockey, Cyclist	More amount of complex carbohydrates (rice, potato, banana, gram, nuts)	Simple carbohydrates and water (fruit juice, glucose, water)	Lots of complex carbohydrates, more of low fats, sufficient water
Skill/Speed activities	Sprint/middle distance races,Kho-kho, water polo, skating	More carbohydrates – simple and complex	Simple carbohydrates in liquid	Sufficient amount of complex carbohydrate, lots of vitamins, minerals, increased proteins
Explosive , body contact activities	Wrestling, Kabaddi, Judo, Jump, Throws	More carbohydrates – simple and complex	Simple carbohydrates in liquid	Sufficient amount of complex carbohydrate, lots of vitamins, minerals, increased proteins

 

 

 

 

Chapter 2 Physical Education Class XII

Chapter 2- Adventure Sports and leadership Training

Adventure Sports:

Or extreme sports are certain activities which are dangerous, involve speed, height, high level of physical exertion. They are usually played by individuals who may or may not be competitive.

Objectives of Adventure Sports:

Benefit to individuals-

1. Provide fun and thrill
2. Increase level of physical capacity/fitness in a healthy way
3. Offer challenge to help learn deal with adverse situations
4. Develops team spirit
5. Good stress buster

Benefits for locations/country-

1. Promote tourism
2. Conservation of natural resources

 

 

 

Type of activities:

Camping        Rock Climbing       Trekking         River rafting

Mountaineering   Hiking     Paragliding    Zorbing  Skiing

Kayaking        Sky diving      Bungee jumping Scuba Diving

 

Camping:

Outdoor recreation, away from urban areas and civilization, became popular in 20^th century. Spending one or several days and nights in a campsite.

Infra/Material required: Tent, caravan, motor-home, sporting camp, First aid, claw-hammer or mallet, sleeping bag, blankets, lantern or flashlight, axe, firewood, fire-starter, ropes, folding chairs, raincoat, hiking boots, camp kitchen items, insect repellent, sunscreen, beverages, personal care products, tripot grill, clay pots, tools, knives, GPS device.

Type of camping:

• Back packing
• Tent camping
• Canoe Camping
• Vehicle camping
• Sail camping
• Bicycle camping
• Social camping

Objectives, Advantages of camping:

• Teaches self-reliance, independent and disciplined.
• Team work and cooperation.
• Inexpensive form of accommodation for people attending open air events- sports meets, music festivals etc.
• Increases confidence, develops communication skills, self-expression.
• Qualities of leadership and creativity.

Rock climbing

Generally done between 20ft to 120ft in length (8-10 bolts to 25 bolts). These days climbers use fixed anchors, such as bolts and nuts. Emphasis on gymnastics skills, strength, endurance.

Equipment- Dynamic tape, quick draws, belay device, climbing harnesses, runners, helmets, climbing shoes and chalk bag.

K2 and Mount Everest still remain the most famous mountain peaks for trekking.

Trekking

Multi-day hiking trips through rural and often rugged territories. It can be combined with other form of sports as rock-climbing, back packing etc. A trekker should use natural resources while trekking.

Objectives:

• Enjoy beauty of nature
• Spiritual pilgrimage ( Vaishno devi, Amarnath yatra)
• To reach places where there are no modes of transport
• To have a sense of achievement
• To take on challenge
• Exercise physically

Material required: Tent, sleeping bag, water bottle, trekking shoes, pan, rope, binoculars, tools, tracing paper, GPS, rucksack, first-aid.

 

River-Rafting

Or white water rafting, is a recreational outdoor activity where an inflatable raft is used to navigate through a river or water body. The white/rough water adds to the thrill and excitement. This activity became popular as an adventure sport since 1970s. Involves individual s paddling 10ft rafts with open double-bladed peddles to multi-person, single-bladed peddled rafts, steered by a tour guide. It’s an extreme sport, can be fatal.

The International scale of River difficulty is divided in six different grades.

Grade	Roughness	Competence required	Skill level
1	Very small area	Slight maneuvering	Very basic
2	Some rough water, some rocks	Some maneuvering	Basic paddling skill
3	Small waves, small drop, but no considerable danger	Significant maneuvering	Significant skill
4	Medium waves, more rocks, considerable drop	Sharp maneuvering	Sharp skill
5	Large waves, large volume, possibility of large rocks and hazards, large drop	Precise maneuvering	High skill
6	Class 6 rapids are considered dangerous, non-navigable, huge waves, huge rocks and hazards, substantial drops	Risky, non-navigable. Not so maneuverable.	All amount of skill and safety equipment to avoid high injuries or fatalities

 

Material required: Hot weather rafting- Bathing suit, T-shirt, sun block, lip balm, sunglasses, eyeglass straps, old sneakers, neoprene, waterproof camera (go-pro), energy bar, water/ getorade, small dry bag, towel, plastic bag, change of clothes.

Cold water rafting- in addition to above, warm clothing, paddle jacket/ pants/wetsuit.

Mountaineering ( Also called Alpinism)

Sport of mountain climbing including skiing, hiking in the mountains, rock climbing as well as crossing glaciers.

Specialization: Rock-craft, snow-craft and skiing.

Hazards:

• Falling rocks
• Falling ice
• Avalanche- snow or ice
• Slopes
• Crevasses
• Weather
• Altitude
• Solar radiation
• Volcanic activity

Material requirement: Map, Compass, GPS, sun protection, sunscreen, lip-balm, glacier glasses, headlamp, flashlight, extra batteries, first-aid kit, lighter, tent, tools, supply of food and water, helmet, harness, two-way radio, camera, binoculars, toiletries.

Identification of natural resources:

Natural resources are of two forms: Bio-diversity, Geo-diversity

Biotic Resources– Living and organic, available in our bio-sphere. Forest, animals, Fossil, coal, petroleum.

Abiotic Resources– Non-living and Non-organic. Land, water, air, fire, metals and ores.

Development based segregation of resources:

Potential Resources: Existing petroleum with sedimentary rocks till it is drilled out and put to use is Potential resource.

Actual Resources: Government takes necessary surveys to find possible resources such as wood- available for use. Wood is cut from the forests and made into various forms of essential items: table, chairs, planks, fuel etc.

Reserve Resources: A portion of resources kept in reserves for future development.

Stock Resources: Hydrogen is called stock resource as it cannot be used due to lack of technology.

 

Natural Resources are also divided into 2 categories based on renewability.

Renewable Resources: Resources that replenished at higher rate than consumption. E.g. Sunlight, air, wind are referred as renewable resources. No dearth of these resources, however can lead to depletion by overuse such as water.

Non-renewable Natural Resources: Rate of consumption (decay, discharge, depletion) exceeds the rate of replenishment. E.g Fossil fuels, radioactive substances (uranium), heavy metals.

Conservation:

UN created world chapter in 1982 for protecting the nature from human activity. Incorporated legal steps to protect natural resources from abuse.

Other bodies: World Ethics of Sustainability ( set up by WWF and UNEP).

Management of Natural Resources:

• Involves management of resources like- land, water, soil, plants and animals.
• It involves defining rules and regulations around right to use resources, as stipulated by concerned authorities.
• Essentially there are two committees. One to define the management rules of use of resources and other to supervise use and methods of management offering factual/counter arguments.

Role of persons involved in adventure sports in saving the resources:

• Don’t wash your clothes in water streams
• Don’t leave eatables near roadside for wild animals
• Don’t leave bio-degradable waste. Collect them and bring them back to waste collection centers.
• Used plastics should not be littered, disposed off, buries or burnt in natural bodies.
• Don’t defecate or urinate near river banks
• Don’t cut trees, shrubs, herbs in access during expedition.
• Refrain from polluting water with human, kitchen waste.

Development of Leadership through Physical Education Programmes.

Leadership is the capacity to rally men and women to a common purpose.

Qualities of a leader:

• Knowledge of the subject
• Ability to get along with others
• Confidence in one’s ability to lead others
• Ability to understand the team’s vision and objectives
• Awareness of self and others
• Good communication skills
• Respect team, coaches, officials and opponents
• Ability to manage risks
• Credibility and reliability
• Collaboration and team work
• Accountability
• Energetic, both physical and technically

 

Developing Leadership qualities:

1. Assign students a range of leadership roles: supervising, managing sports activities.
2. Appoint them as members of committees, captain a team, delegating the responsibilities.
3. Provide them some leadership courses
4. Give them challenge and complexity
5. Recognize the good leadership behaviours. Will help motivate them and others.
6. Continuously assess the leadership skills present and areas that need improvement. Accordingly assign them tasks.
7. Give them reward on showing desired improvement in their skills- motivating teams, getting desired results etc.

 

 

Chapter 1 Physical Education Class XII

Chapter 1- Planning of Sports

Planning is the process of deciding in advance what is to be done, when, where, how to be done by whom.

Objectives of Planning:

• Increase Efficiency- Optimum utilization of available resources
• Keep Good control- Planning any tournament helps limit the problems that may arise
• Facilitate proper coordination: amongst committee members, players, coaches
• Facilitate Safety and Improvement in performance:
• To enhance creativity
• To reduce chances of mistake
• Planned approach
• Better facilities to meet the demand
• Protect existing facilities
• Aid in organizing

Importance of Planning:

Planning …

• Provides direction
• Reduces risk of failure
• Reduces wastage of time
• Promotes innovation
• Helps better decision making
• Helps focus on objectives

Planning Process (Pre-tournament task, during tournament task and post tournament)

1. Pre- tournament task: Planning usually by physical education teacher prior to tournament in a systematic way.
   1. Tournament schedule- dates, venue finalization
   2. Arrange facilities: Equipment, playfields etc
   3. Budget of tournament: Take approvals from higher authorities
   4. Formation of committees
   5. Communication of tournament to concerned
   6. Meeting of various teams for drawing fixtures
   7. Arrange supervision
   8. Arrange mementoes and certificates
   9. Plan lodging and boarding
   10. Transportation
2. During Tournament:
   1. Arrangement for inaugural ceremony
   2. Arrangement checks during tournament
   3. To check eligibility of teams
   4. Ensuring tournament running as per schedule
   5. To supervise the officiating staff
   6. Record score sheet
   7. Arrange refreshments
   8. Announcements on progress of events
   9. Provide first-aid in case of any injuries
   10. Provide daily progress of tournament to concerned and media
3. Post- Tournament:
   1. Check out the teams, security refunds
   2. Arrangement of prize distribution
   3. To make press note an release to media
   4. To make final report and submit to authorities
   5. To make payments of vendors
   6. To make finance reports

Intramural Tournament: Is the one conducted within one institute/ building.

Committee that organizes Intramural tournament consists of following:

1. Intramural director: (A Principal/headmaster/ head of deptt of Physical Education)

Coordinates the activities into a unified program, acts like a link between the institute & student activities

2. Assistant director (Sr. Physical Ed teacher)- Responsible for conducting the complete event
3. Secretary Intramural: (Any teacher)-keeps record of meetings & results of the tournament
4. House Masters (Sr. Subject teacher)- teacher who head the respective houses in school responsible for student activities and their inter house intramurals.
5. House captains (senior students 10^th-12^th class), work with house masters, help in selecting house teams.

Different types of committees:

Reception committee

Transport committee

Boarding and lodging committee

Refreshment committee

Technical Committee

Decoration committee

Ceremony committee

Medical Committee

Ground and equipment committee

Publicity Committee

Announcement committee- Announcements on opening, closing and during the tournament.

Sports awards/prize committee- Type of prizes, trophies etc.

Allotment Committee- allotment of passes to VIPs etc.

Type of Tournaments:

1. Knockout: When winning teams go to the next round and losing ones are knocked out of the tournament.
2. League or Round Robin: Single & Double league ( Cyclic, Tabular, Staircase)
3. Combination: Knockout and League
4. Challenge tournament: Ladder & Consolation

Knockout Tournament – Fixture planning:

Number of matches= Number of teams -1 ( n-1)

If the number of teams are a number which is 2 or a number with power of 2 ( 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64…) the teams can be divided into equal halves.

If the number of teams is not a number with power of 2, e.g. (9,11,13,15…), The number of teams over and above the nearest number with power of 2 are given Byes ( Skip a particular round).

e.g We have 7 teams

Number of matches= 7-1= 6

Now 6 is not a number with power of 2, hence nearest higher number with power of two.

The nearest number with power of 2= 8

The Byes = Number with power of 2- number of teams , .i.e. 8-7=1

Number of Rounds = the Number of teams is with the power of 2, then the number that’s on 2 on Power (e.g if number of teams is 16, i.e. 2 to the power 4. Then number of rounds=4

If the number of teams is not a number with power of 2, then the near higher number’s power in the rounds we would have (e.g. number of teams 30. Nearest power of 2 number is 32 (2to the power 5). Hence number of rounds=5)

Calculating teams in Each Half:

If the teams are of number with Power of two:

1. If it’s an Even number: 22, both halves with get equal number of teams ( 11 in this case)
2. For 11 teams in each half, we will plan byes= nearest number with power of 2 will be 16-total teams in each half i.e. 11= 5 Byes
3. 2 Byes in the upper half and 3 in the lower half.
4. Byes are distributed in following manner:
   1. First bye- Last team of lower half
   2. Second Bye- First team of Upper half
   3. Third Bye- First team of lower half
   4. Fourth Bye- Last team of the upper half
   5. Next Byes- Will be given in same order

 

 

Chapter 1 Physical Education Class XII

Injury type	Detail	Cause	Symptoms	Treatment	Prevention
Contusion	Crushing of soft tissues without breaking the skin	Violent external force	Discoloration under the skin ( From redness to blue) Swelling and pain Stiffness over the area	Ice application cold compression Massage after 2 days	Use protective gear ( Skin guard, battling gloves, elbow guard) Abiding safety rules of the sport
Abrasion	Injury of skin ( scrapped, rubbed due to friction)	A fall or rub by a hard surface	Scrapping of skin with burning pain Some bleeding	Avoid further friction Clean with antiseptic cream or wash properly to prevent infection Cover with medicinal cotton or Band-Aid Anti-tetanus injection Clean n Repeat dressing everyday	Wear protective gear Avoid poorly maintained fields
Laceration	Wound or Cut over the skin	by a sharp object	Bleeding Severe pain	Clean with antiseptic cream Stop bleeding by compression Cover with medicinal cotton or Band-Aid Anti-tetanus injection Clean n Repeat dressing everyday Apply ice/cold compression If Injury is deep go for stitches	Wear protective gear Avoid poorly maintained fields Use sharp edged objects carefully
Incision	Sharp line cuts on skin over bones	slit kind of cut by Sharp objects	Do	Let the initial blood with germs come out. Clean with iodine tincture/spirit Medicine, cotton wool band aid ( Easy as edges of these wounds are smooth
Sprain	Ligament injury	Overstretching or tearing of ligament 1. Mild- Slight tearing, no loss of function 2. Moderate- More tearing , some loss of function 3.Severe- Total rupture/total loss of function	Swelling and softness in the area Acute pain by touching	Apply ice 3-4 times a day Restrict movement/rest/Crepe/elastic bandage After 24/36/48 hrs., apply anti-inflammatory ointment and gentry massage when pain subsides perform rehabilitation exercises (Rest-Ice-Compression-Elevation-Rehabilitation- RICER)	Warming up before participation wearing protective gear
Strain	Muscle injury	Overstretching or tearing of muscle/tendon- severe than sprain 1. Mild- Slight tearing, no loss of function 2. Moderate- More tearing , some loss of function 3.Severe- Total rupture/total loss of function	Pain on moving the part swelling, loss of strength Feeling of something broken inside	PRICER Protect-Rest-Ice-Compression-Elevation ( raising injured part above heart level)-Rehabilitation	Warming up before participation wearing protective gear
Injury type	Detail	Cause	Symptoms	Treatment	Prevention
Injury of bones	Fractures: Simple/closed ( no wound) Traverse( Breaking @ right angle) Spiral ( Broken with twisted motion) Comminuted(many pieces) Impacted(broken ends driven in another) Greenstick(Crack/bend, no breaking)	Violent external force hitting the bones	Acute pain Tenderness/discomfort Swelling Loss of power Deformity of the limb Irregularity of bone Unnatural movement	Immobilize the fractured bone Stop bleeding if any See doctor ASAP In compound fracture don’t wash Let only doctor plaster	Warm up properly Good quality sports equipment Use safe Sports gear Avoid poorly maintained fields
Joint injuries	Dislocations: Adjoining Bones are displaced from original position Simple dislocation Fractured dislocation Complicated dislocation	Direct or indirect impact on bone	Sudden pain Loss of power & movement Swelling Temporary paralysis Pinching/cutting of blood vessel/nerve May be visible deformity	Immobilize the joint Cold compression to reduce pain Provide support by String/bandage See doctor ASAP Rehabilitation exercise to restore strength	Always obey rules/regulations of game Avoid practicing during fatigue Warm up properly
	Tennis & Golf elbow	Damage due to Overuse of tendon
	Cartilage	Tear in knee	Can lock the joint

 

Chapter 9 Psychology Class XII

Chapter 9- Developing Psychological Skills

 

A Skill may be defined as proficiency, facility or dexterity that is acquired or developed through training and experience.

Webster definition: Possession of the qualities required to do something or get something done.

Skills essential for professional psychologists:

1. Assessment of individual differences
2. Behaviour modification skills
3. Counselling and guidance skills

Basic skills/competencies identified for becoming an effective psychologist:

1. General Skills: These are generic skills needed in all psychologists irrespective of their area of specialization- clinical health, industrial /organizational, social, educational in environmental setting or working as consultants. These are qualifying skills which are must for any field to further build and hone the specialization field related competencies:
2. Interpersonal skills- listen and be empathetic
3. Cognitive skills- Problem solving, critical thinking and organized reasoning, intellectual curiosity and flexibility.

• Affective skills: emotional control and balance, tolerance, understanding of interpersonal conflicts, ambiguity and certainty.

1. Expressive skills: Ability to express and communicate one’s ideas, feelings, information in written and verbal forms.
2. Reflective skills: Ability to examine and consider one’s own motives, attitudes and behaviours.
3. Personal skills: personal organization, personal hygiene, time management and appropriate dressing.

• Knowledge of Self and sensitivity towards and ability to understand, work with and promote diversity ( cultures, beliefs, norms, backgrounds, genders, segments)

1. Observational Skills: Ability to observe and pay attention, watch and listen using all senses. From environment, surrounding to human behaviours and actions, their demographic features (age, gender, stature, race etc). Technique:
2. Observe patiently.
3. Pay close attention to your physical surroundings- who what when where how

• Be aware of people’s reactions, emotions, motivations

1. Ask questions that can be answered while observing
2. Be yourself, give information about yourself, if asked.
3. Observe with an optimistic curiosity.

• Be ethical, you have to respect privacy and protect the information about your client you observe.

Types of Observation:

Naturalistic Observation: is one of the primary ways of learning about the way people behave in a given setting.

Eg. How people behave in a mall when things are offered on discount. One can visit a mall and observe them in the shops where discounted items are on display.

Participant Observation: Here the observer also become an active member of the process and part of the setting being observed.

e.g Take a part time job in the mall to have an insider’s knowledge on the behaviour of people during discount sales.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation method:

Advantages:

• Allows behaviours to be seen and studied in its natural settings.
• People from outside or fron the inside of setting can be trained to carry out the process.

Disadvantages:

• Personal biases of the people observing and involved.
• General and day to day activities are fairly routine in a given setting hence can go unnoticed by the observer.
• Sometimes the behaviours can get influenced by presence of an observer and hence defeat the purpose of observation.

c.Specific Skills:

Core /basic to the field of psychological service.

e.g.

Clinical setting- techniques of therapeutic interventions

Organizational psychologists- skills of assessment

Some common Specific skills relevant to most fields are:

1. Communication skills
2. Psychological testing skills
3. Interviewing skills
4. Counselling skills

 

Chapter 8 Psychology Class XII

Chapter 8- Psychology and Life

Environmental psychology: deals with various psychological issues pertaining to human-environment (everything that surrounds us: physical, social, work and cultural) interaction in a very broad sense.

Ecology: is the study of relationship between living beings and their environment and their interdependence.

Environment can be of two types:

1. Natural (untouched by human intervention. Eg. Natural resources, air, water, earth, flora and fauna)
2. Built (created by humanbeing Eg. Cities, houses, parks, shopping malls etc)

The Built Environment involves concept of Environmental design which contains some psychological features, such as:

• Creativity of human mind: work of architects, town planners, civil engineers.
• Human control over natural environment: building of dams to regulate flow of rivers.
• Impact of design on social interaction: Distance between houses in a colony, placement of rooms in a house and desks in a class, chair in a get together.

Different views/approaches of the Human- Environment Relationship

1. Minimalistic Perspective: This approach assumes minimal or negligible influence of physical environment on the human beings (behaviour, health and wellbeing). They exist as parallel components. No relationship
2. Instrumental Perspective: Suggests that physical environment exists for the consumption of human beings for their comfort and well being. Material and instrumental relationship. Eg. Awareness campaigns on saving environment for ur future generations.
3. Spiritual Perspective: Refers to the view of Environment as something to be respected and valued rather than destroyed and exploited. Reflects the interdependence between the two. Eg Chipko movement custom in Bishnoi community to save environment.

Bishnois and the Chipko Movement:

Bishnois a small community in Rajasthan value their trees and wildlife as much as their lives. They would do anything to protect their trees including hugging to them if they were threatened. The destroyer cannot cut the trees until he destroys their bodies.

This was first practiced to start a movement against felling of trees in 1960 when government was unable to curb this. It became intense after the 1970 floods and was a protest against stopping unlawful felling of trees, soil erosion, preventing floods and landslides. As their livelihood was dependent on the forests.

It included six demands:

1. Only specific trees and vegetation suitable to geographical region should be grown.
2. Forests in soil erosion and landslide zones to be renewed and protected.
3. Those who have been living near the forests and depending on them should be allowed to live there.
4. The contractor system for commercial timber exploitation should be abolished.
5. Useful trees for villagers should be planted near the villages.
6. Village cottage industry based on minor forest products should be set up to provide jobs to locals.

Environmental Effects on Human Behaviour:

• On Perception: e.g. a tribal society in Africa build their houses circular without angular walls. They show less errors in geometric illusions.
• On Emotions:g watching flowing river, blooming flower or a tranquil mountain provides unmatchable joy whereas environmental natural disaster like floods, draught, landslides or earthquakes can effect humans to an extend that they can feel deep depression and sorrow at times Post-traumatic stress disorder.
• On occupation , living style and attitudes: e.g. Environment and ecology impacts the occupation leading to certain living styles and attitudes:

Plains with water bodies, rivers around- Agriculture and farming- Cooperative and group dependence. (Also dependent on monsoon- another environmental feature)

Deserts- Industry, mining, minerals- More independent and competitive, less dependence on group.

Mountains- Hunting gathering, shepherds etc-  Seasonal working due to extreme weathers ( winter/snow) in the mountains

Human influence on environment:

• Taking natural resources for daily lives.
• Damaging and harming nature by creating pollution and producing nature harming products ( smoke, chemicals, constructions)
• Environment stressors harming nature and in turn harming themselves. ( Felling trees, excessive mining leading to soil erosion and landslides damaging and disrupting human lives)

Environment damaging effects:

All types of pollutions: Water, air, environment pollution by poisonous gases, smoke fumes and harmful chemicals from industry and unprocessed garbage, polythenes from homes.

Noise pollution: Impact of noise pollution is basis – intensity, predictability and controllability :

• In a simple mental task noise does not affect overall performance.
• If task is interesting, noise does not impact much
• When noise is unpredictable it impacts more than when it is predictable we get used to it.

Pollution: Garbage, harmful chemicals, fumes, smoke, contaminated water/ground water, acid rain etc.

Crowding: Discomfort, privacy lapse, claustrophobic, aggression in behaviour

• Crowding may lead to abnormal behaviour and aggression
• Lowered performance in difficult tasks that involve cognitive processes.
• Low academic performance by children grown in excessive crowded households.
• Nature of the social interaction also decide how an individual will react to the crowd.
• Different degree of impact of crowd to different individuals based on tolerance levels.
• Cultural characteristics and beliefs may determine the extent to which a particular environment is judged to be subjectively crowded. Cultures promoting group living and collectivism finds crowds more acceptable than those which promote individualism.
• Crowding impacts Personal Space also which each individual likes to create around himself /herself.

Interpersonal Physical distance: In social situation, the physical distance people like to maintain while interacting with the other person is called Interpersonal Physical distance. Types of this are defined as follows:

• Intimate Distance: ( upto 18 inches)- Privately with close friends and relatives.
• Personal distance : ( 18 inches to 4 ft) interacting one-on-one in a social situation.
• Social distance: (4 ft to 10 ft) in formal interaction.
• Public Distance: ( 10ft to infinity). Distance in a formal setting.

 

Natural Disaster: leading to immense human lives and property damage

1. Natural unaided by human beings: Floods, epidemic, hurricanes, tornedos, tsunami, volcanic eruptions, forest fires etc.
2. Human aided natural disasters: Floods, global warming, forest fires can be also due to mining and cutting trees.
3. Other disasters: wars, industrial accidents such as leaking of poisonous or radioactive gases, atomic bombs and use of destructive weapons, epidemics (plague 1994).

These disasters not only lead to damage to human lives, other living beings and property, they also lead to psychological disorders called post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which need to be understood and remedied.

These disorders have following features:

• The immediate reaction: disorientation, denial and inability to assess the damage.
• Physical Reaction: Bodily exhaustion, difficulty in sleeping, change in eating pattern increased heartbeat and blood pressure.
• Emotional Reaction: Grief, fear, irritability, anger ( why this should happen to me), helplessness, hopelessness, depression, absolute lack of emotions ( numbness), guilt, lack of interest in daily livelihood.
• Cognitive Reaction: worry, difficulty in concentration, reduced attention span, memory loss, confusion, nightmares.
• Social Reaction: withdrawal from others, getting into conflicts, arguments without any major reason, feeling of being rejected and left out by loved ones.

All such people need to undergo healing through remedial process. With proper counselling and psychiatric treatments they can overcome the psychological impact of the disaster. The intensity of treatment and results depend on:

• The intensity of the loss due to disaster.
• The individual’s coping ability
• Other stressful experiences before disaster and support system he has.

Though most natural disasters can only be predicted in a limited way. There are ways of being prepared to minimize their devastating impact:

• Warnings- being announced on radio/TV media to stay away from sea or move to saver places, when some natural disaster like cyclone, flood etc are predicted.
• Safety measures- In places where some disasters can be predicted, they can still happen suddenly..like earthquake prone areas. Safety tip are issued time to time and measures are taken to build houses etc to withstand such disasters.
• Treatment of psychological disorders-
  • 1^st Step: providing material help ( food, clothing, shelter, medical help etc)
  • 2^nd Step: Counselling at group or individual level. (encouraging the survivors to talk about their experiences, giving them time to heal.)
  • 3^rd Step- Self efficacy : making them develop attitude that I can do it. I can come out of this phase.
  • 4^th Step- Rehabilitation: in form of employment and a gradual return to normal routine.
  • 5^th Step: Follow up of victims is also needed periodically.

Promoting Pro- Environmental Behaviour:

1. Reducing air-pollution- Non fuel vehicle, stopping smoking
2. Reducing noise pollution- Discouraging needless honking, keeping noise levels low, and restriction on noisy music after certain hours.
3. Managing disposal of garbage disposal- Separating biodegradable garbage, composting kitchen waste, managing industrial /hospital waste.
4. Planting trees and ensuring care- while avoiding those trees/plans which may be harmful for health.
5. Saying No to plastics- reducing toxic waste
6. Reducing Non- biodegradable packaging of consumers’ goods.
7. Laws related to construction that violate optimal environmental design.

Psychology and Social concerns/problems:

Poverty: is a condition in which there is a lack of necessities of life in the context of unequal distribution of wealth in society. It refers to an actual shortage of resources necessary for living and thus can be objectively measured.

Deprivation: is a state in which a person feels that s/he has lost something valuable and is not getting something that s/he deserves. Since it is more of a perception and thinking so its not only the poor who may feel deprived, others too.

Social Disadvantage: is a condition where some segments of society are not allowed to enjoy the same privileges as the rest of society. It poses obstacle to the growth of these disadvantaged sections. E.g.- Caste, Poverty, religion etc.

Discrimination: refers to the behaviour that makes a distinction between the rich and the poor. Favouring the rich and advantaged over the poor and disadvantaged- in social interaction, employment, health facilities and education, despite the capability.

This creates a vicious cycle, lack of good economic status deprives them from good schools and education and hence adversely impacts their employability and in turn continues to keep them under poverty line.

Psychological Characteristics and Effects of poverty and deprivation:

On Motivation, personality, social behaviour, cognitive processes and mental health:

• Motivation: Low on aspiration and low motivation for achievement. They lack believe in themselves and their ability and attribute their successes to fate or luck.
• Personality: Have low self esteem. High on anxiety and introversion. Dwell on immediate present than future oriented, prefer short immediate rewards than more in the long run. They live with sense of hopelessness, powerlessness, injustice, loss of identity.
• Social behaviour: The poor and deprived exhibit an attitude of resentment.
• Cognitive functioning: also gets effected due to prolonged deprivation. Which is mainly due to environment than mental ability: Classification, verbal reasoning, time and pictorial depth perception)
• Mental Health: Deprived people may face more mental illnesses and depression due to constant worrying about basic necessities and sense of hopelessness.

Major Causes of Poverty:

• Natural disasters causing property resources damage.
• Manmade disasters- poisonous gas leakage, wars
• Poor themselves- When they lack the ability and motivation to turn around their status.
• Culture of poverty- convinces the individual that s/he will remain poor.
• Economic, social and political factors leaving poor people out, subjected to social injustice, deprivation, discrimination and exclusion.
• Geographical- Deserts, harsh climates.
• Poverty cycle- Poverty begets poverty: Beginning with meagre means> lack of education> lack of resources>low skills> low income> low motivation> continued poverty.

Majors for Poverty Alleviation-

• Breaking the poverty cycle and helping the people attain self-sufficiency. ( financial, medical and resources to help them earn and develop livelihood and not become dependent on the aid)
• Creating a context for making the poor take the responsibility instead of blaming the circumstances.
• Providing education and employment opportunities, following the principles of social justice. This will help in reducing the crime and violence due to frustration.
• Measures for improving mental health. Many of the poverty reduction measures improve the physical health.
• Steps for empowering the poor.

Antyodaya: Rise of the last person in the society.

Under these programs there is provision for health facilities, nutrition, education and training for employment.

More in rural than urban as they lack resources. Poor are encouraged to start their own with initial capital that is provided through small loans/micro credit facilities.

1. Grameen bank in Bangladesh.ActionAid- an international group dedicated to the cause of making the poor more sensitive to their rights, to equality and justice, ensuring adequate nutrition, health and facilities for education and employment.

Aggression, Violence and Peace:

This is another disorder, which is a major problem in today’s society.

Aggression: is a behaviour by one person/persons that is intended to cause harm to another person/s. Can be demonstrated by using harsh words, criticism or even hostile feelings against others.

Violence: Forceful destructive behaviour towards another person or object is described as violence.

Difference in the two: Aggression involves the intention to harm or injure the other person, whereas violence may or may not have such intention.

 

 

Aggression is of 2 types:

Instrumental Aggression: is an act of aggression meant to achieve a certain goal or object. E.g. a bully in the class bullies new students to snatch their chocolates etc.

Hostile Aggression: Expression of anger towards a target with an intention of harming him/her not obtaining out of the victim.

Causes of aggression: Theory I

1. Inborn tendency (its an inborn biological tendency of human-beings and animals created for self-defence)
2. Physiological mechanism: Annoying , frustrating situations, hot and humid weather, crowding can cause one to get aggressive.
3. Child rearing: If parents have been using physical punishments to control and discipline children, they have the tendency to get aggressive.
4. Frustration: When a person is prevented from achieving/reaching his goal, attaining the object he really wants.

Displacement: is a phenomenon where the aggressor usually chooses a weaker person to express anger who is less likely or unable to react back aggressively.

Causes of aggression: Theory II

Learning: Individuals exhibit aggression as they may find it rewarding as getting their work done faster and getting what they want. Hence they learn through direct reinforcement.

Observing an Aggressive model: A child watching aggression and violence on TV may start imitating.

Anger provoking action: Watching and observing the act of someone insulting, threatening, inappropriate act against weak (women/children), dishonesty, can lead to causing viewer display aggression.

Availability of weapons to express anger: It is observed that if the weapons like knife, gun and stick are available the chances of aggression converting to violence are higher.

Personality Factors: Naturally hot tempered. Eg weak people with low esteem may display aggression to boot their self-esteem and ego.

Also people with very high self-esteem may get aggressive when they feel they are not getting what they deserve.

Cultural factors: in some cultures children and young members are reared teaching them to be aggressive and are praised for displaying that behaviour. Whereas some peace-loving tribes may not appreciate aggression.

Strategies to reduce aggression and violence:

• Parenting/teaching: Parents /teachers taking care that they don’t encourage the aggressive behaviour and use physical punishments to discipline the children.
• Reduce opportunities to observe and watch aggressive behaviour: Children to not be exposed to media, books, cinema carrying violent and aggressive content during formative years.
• Poverty and social justice: Poverty and deprivation being prominent causes of aggression and violence should be addressed in the society and social justice should be implemented to lessen situations that cause frustration.
• Positive attitude towards peace

Health: biological, psychological and social wellbeing.

Impacted by attitudes, beliefs and behaviours associated with physical wellbeing.

1. Cognition: Different people behave differently in addressing physical wellbeing. Some consult doctors for even small ailments like cough and cold, whereas some choose to ignore even serious problems and delay consulting.
2. Level of awareness: knowing about problems and causes can help address them more effectively than being ignorant.
3. Behaviour: Lifestyle related problems and behaviours we indulge into can cause health issues: smoking, drinking alcohol, drug abuse and unsafe sex. Problems related to agronomical issues.
4. Social and Cultural factors: social and cultural differences may influence psychological responses. In Asian, African society’s gender, age and roles also impact the state of health. Especially women in our societies, as they may not be given importance or are expected to be hardy.

Influence of TV:

1. A powerful medium for providing large amount of information in an interesting way and visual form. On one side it helps retain things and gain information faster but reduces reading, writing habits and outdoor activities.
2. While the televised content can help develop deeper understanding for creating and developing things by watching, it also distract young viewers and interfere with their ability to concentrate on one target and social interactions.
3. Can inculcate aggressive and violent behaviours if the content watched of that nature due to higher ability to influence due to visual media. Alternately, can also reduce aggression by watching it as it may create dislike for that seeing to consequences. It is referred as catharsis.
4. Can encourage consumerist attitude by watching the advertisements and promotion of several objects and options in those.

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 8 Psychology Class XII

Chapter 8- Psychology and Life

Environmental psychology: deals with various psychological issues pertaining to human-environment (everything that surrounds us: physical, social, work and cultural) interaction in a very broad sense.

Ecology: is the study of relationship between living beings and their environment and their interdependence.

Environment can be of two types:

1. Natural (untouched by human intervention. Eg. Natural resources, air, water, earth, flora and fauna)
2. Built (created by humanbeing Eg. Cities, houses, parks, shopping malls etc)

The Built Environment involves concept of Environmental design which contains some psychological features, such as:

• Creativity of human mind: work of architects, town planners, civil engineers.
• Human control over natural environment: building of dams to regulate flow of rivers.
• Impact of design on social interaction: Distance between houses in a colony, placement of rooms in a house and desks in a class, chair in a get together.

Different views/approaches of the Human- Environment Relationship

1. Minimalistic Perspective: This approach assumes minimal or negligible influence of physical environment on the human beings (behaviour, health and wellbeing). They exist as parallel components. No relationship
2. Instrumental Perspective: Suggests that physical environment exists for the consumption of human beings for their comfort and well being. Material and instrumental relationship. Eg. Awareness campaigns on saving environment for ur future generations.
3. Spiritual Perspective: Refers to the view of Environment as something to be respected and valued rather than destroyed and exploited. Reflects the interdependence between the two. Eg Chipko movement custom in Bishnoi community to save environment.

Bishnois and the Chipko Movement:

Bishnois a small community in Rajasthan value their trees and wildlife as much as their lives. They would do anything to protect their trees including hugging to them if they were threatened. The destroyer cannot cut the trees until he destroys their bodies.

This was first practiced to start a movement against felling of trees in 1960 when government was unable to curb this. It became intense after the 1970 floods and was a protest against stopping unlawful felling of trees, soil erosion, preventing floods and landslides. As their livelihood was dependent on the forests.

It included six demands:

1. Only specific trees and vegetation suitable to geographical region should be grown.
2. Forests in soil erosion and landslide zones to be renewed and protected.
3. Those who have been living near the forests and depending on them should be allowed to live there.
4. The contractor system for commercial timber exploitation should be abolished.
5. Useful trees for villagers should be planted near the villages.
6. Village cottage industry based on minor forest products should be set up to provide jobs to locals.

Environmental Effects on Human Behaviour:

• On Perception: e.g. a tribal society in Africa build their houses circular without angular walls. They show less errors in geometric illusions.
• On Emotions:g watching flowing river, blooming flower or a tranquil mountain provides unmatchable joy whereas environmental natural disaster like floods, draught, landslides or earthquakes can effect humans to an extend that they can feel deep depression and sorrow at times Post-traumatic stress disorder.
• On occupation , living style and attitudes: e.g. Environment and ecology impacts the occupation leading to certain living styles and attitudes:

Plains with water bodies, rivers around- Agriculture and farming- Cooperative and group dependence. (Also dependent on monsoon- another environmental feature)

Deserts- Industry, mining, minerals- More independent and competitive, less dependence on group.

Mountains- Hunting gathering, shepherds etc-  Seasonal working due to extreme weathers ( winter/snow) in the mountains

Human influence on environment:

• Taking natural resources for daily lives.
• Damaging and harming nature by creating pollution and producing nature harming products ( smoke, chemicals, constructions)
• Environment stressors harming nature and in turn harming themselves. ( Felling trees, excessive mining leading to soil erosion and landslides damaging and disrupting human lives)

Environment damaging effects:

All types of pollutions: Water, air, environment pollution by poisonous gases, smoke fumes and harmful chemicals from industry and unprocessed garbage, polythenes from homes.

Noise pollution: Impact of noise pollution is basis – intensity, predictability and controllability :

• In a simple mental task noise does not affect overall performance.
• If task is interesting, noise does not impact much
• When noise is unpredictable it impacts more than when it is predictable we get used to it.

Pollution: Garbage, harmful chemicals, fumes, smoke, contaminated water/ground water, acid rain etc.

Crowding: Discomfort, privacy lapse, claustrophobic, aggression in behaviour

• Crowding may lead to abnormal behaviour and aggression
• Lowered performance in difficult tasks that involve cognitive processes.
• Low academic performance by children grown in excessive crowded households.
• Nature of the social interaction also decide how an individual will react to the crowd.
• Different degree of impact of crowd to different individuals based on tolerance levels.
• Cultural characteristics and beliefs may determine the extent to which a particular environment is judged to be subjectively crowded. Cultures promoting group living and collectivism finds crowds more acceptable than those which promote individualism.
• Crowding impacts Personal Space also which each individual likes to create around himself /herself.

Interpersonal Physical distance: In social situation, the physical distance people like to maintain while interacting with the other person is called Interpersonal Physical distance. Types of this are defined as follows:

• Intimate Distance: ( upto 18 inches)- Privately with close friends and relatives.
• Personal distance : ( 18 inches to 4 ft) interacting one-on-one in a social situation.
• Social distance: (4 ft to 10 ft) in formal interaction.
• Public Distance: ( 10ft to infinity). Distance in a formal setting.

 

Natural Disaster: leading to immense human lives and property damage

1. Natural unaided by human beings: Floods, epidemic, hurricanes, tornedos, tsunami, volcanic eruptions, forest fires etc.
2. Human aided natural disasters: Floods, global warming, forest fires can be also due to mining and cutting trees.
3. Other disasters: wars, industrial accidents such as leaking of poisonous or radioactive gases, atomic bombs and use of destructive weapons, epidemics (plague 1994).

These disasters not only lead to damage to human lives, other living beings and property, they also lead to psychological disorders called post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which need to be understood and remedied.

These disorders have following features:

• The immediate reaction: disorientation, denial and inability to assess the damage.
• Physical Reaction: Bodily exhaustion, difficulty in sleeping, change in eating pattern increased heartbeat and blood pressure.
• Emotional Reaction: Grief, fear, irritability, anger ( why this should happen to me), helplessness, hopelessness, depression, absolute lack of emotions ( numbness), guilt, lack of interest in daily livelihood.
• Cognitive Reaction: worry, difficulty in concentration, reduced attention span, memory loss, confusion, nightmares.
• Social Reaction: withdrawal from others, getting into conflicts, arguments without any major reason, feeling of being rejected and left out by loved ones.

All such people need to undergo healing through remedial process. With proper counselling and psychiatric treatments they can overcome the psychological impact of the disaster. The intensity of treatment and results depend on:

• The intensity of the loss due to disaster.
• The individual’s coping ability
• Other stressful experiences before disaster and support system he has.

Though most natural disasters can only be predicted in a limited way. There are ways of being prepared to minimize their devastating impact:

• Warnings- being announced on radio/TV media to stay away from sea or move to saver places, when some natural disaster like cyclone, flood etc are predicted.
• Safety measures- In places where some disasters can be predicted, they can still happen suddenly..like earthquake prone areas. Safety tip are issued time to time and measures are taken to build houses etc to withstand such disasters.
• Treatment of psychological disorders-
  • 1^st Step: providing material help ( food, clothing, shelter, medical help etc)
  • 2^nd Step: Counselling at group or individual level. (encouraging the survivors to talk about their experiences, giving them time to heal.)
  • 3^rd Step- Self efficacy : making them develop attitude that I can do it. I can come out of this phase.
  • 4^th Step- Rehabilitation: in form of employment and a gradual return to normal routine.
  • 5^th Step: Follow up of victims is also needed periodically.

Promoting Pro- Environmental Behaviour:

1. Reducing air-pollution- Non fuel vehicle, stopping smoking
2. Reducing noise pollution- Discouraging needless honking, keeping noise levels low, and restriction on noisy music after certain hours.
3. Managing disposal of garbage disposal- Separating biodegradable garbage, composting kitchen waste, managing industrial /hospital waste.
4. Planting trees and ensuring care- while avoiding those trees/plans which may be harmful for health.
5. Saying No to plastics- reducing toxic waste
6. Reducing Non- biodegradable packaging of consumers’ goods.
7. Laws related to construction that violate optimal environmental design.

Psychology and Social concerns/problems:

Poverty: is a condition in which there is a lack of necessities of life in the context of unequal distribution of wealth in society. It refers to an actual shortage of resources necessary for living and thus can be objectively measured.

Deprivation: is a state in which a person feels that s/he has lost something valuable and is not getting something that s/he deserves. Since it is more of a perception and thinking so its not only the poor who may feel deprived, others too.

Social Disadvantage: is a condition where some segments of society are not allowed to enjoy the same privileges as the rest of society. It poses obstacle to the growth of these disadvantaged sections. E.g.- Caste, Poverty, religion etc.

Discrimination: refers to the behaviour that makes a distinction between the rich and the poor. Favouring the rich and advantaged over the poor and disadvantaged- in social interaction, employment, health facilities and education, despite the capability.

This creates a vicious cycle, lack of good economic status deprives them from good schools and education and hence adversely impacts their employability and in turn continues to keep them under poverty line.

Psychological Characteristics and Effects of poverty and deprivation:

On Motivation, personality, social behaviour, cognitive processes and mental health:

• Motivation: Low on aspiration and low motivation for achievement. They lack believe in themselves and their ability and attribute their successes to fate or luck.
• Personality: Have low self esteem. High on anxiety and introversion. Dwell on immediate present than future oriented, prefer short immediate rewards than more in the long run. They live with sense of hopelessness, powerlessness, injustice, loss of identity.
• Social behaviour: The poor and deprived exhibit an attitude of resentment.
• Cognitive functioning: also gets effected due to prolonged deprivation. Which is mainly due to environment than mental ability: Classification, verbal reasoning, time and pictorial depth perception)
• Mental Health: Deprived people may face more mental illnesses and depression due to constant worrying about basic necessities and sense of hopelessness.

Major Causes of Poverty:

• Natural disasters causing property resources damage.
• Manmade disasters- poisonous gas leakage, wars
• Poor themselves- When they lack the ability and motivation to turn around their status.
• Culture of poverty- convinces the individual that s/he will remain poor.
• Economic, social and political factors leaving poor people out, subjected to social injustice, deprivation, discrimination and exclusion.
• Geographical- Deserts, harsh climates.
• Poverty cycle- Poverty begets poverty: Beginning with meagre means> lack of education> lack of resources>low skills> low income> low motivation> continued poverty.

Majors for Poverty Alleviation-

• Breaking the poverty cycle and helping the people attain self-sufficiency. ( financial, medical and resources to help them earn and develop livelihood and not become dependent on the aid)
• Creating a context for making the poor take the responsibility instead of blaming the circumstances.
• Providing education and employment opportunities, following the principles of social justice. This will help in reducing the crime and violence due to frustration.
• Measures for improving mental health. Many of the poverty reduction measures improve the physical health.
• Steps for empowering the poor.

Antyodaya: Rise of the last person in the society.

Under these programs there is provision for health facilities, nutrition, education and training for employment.

More in rural than urban as they lack resources. Poor are encouraged to start their own with initial capital that is provided through small loans/micro credit facilities.

1. Grameen bank in Bangladesh.ActionAid- an international group dedicated to the cause of making the poor more sensitive to their rights, to equality and justice, ensuring adequate nutrition, health and facilities for education and employment.

Aggression, Violence and Peace:

This is another disorder, which is a major problem in today’s society.

Aggression: is a behaviour by one person/persons that is intended to cause harm to another person/s. Can be demonstrated by using harsh words, criticism or even hostile feelings against others.

Violence: Forceful destructive behaviour towards another person or object is described as violence.

Difference in the two: Aggression involves the intention to harm or injure the other person, whereas violence may or may not have such intention.

 

 

Aggression is of 2 types:

Instrumental Aggression: is an act of aggression meant to achieve a certain goal or object. E.g. a bully in the class bullies new students to snatch their chocolates etc.

Hostile Aggression: Expression of anger towards a target with an intention of harming him/her not obtaining out of the victim.

Causes of aggression: Theory I

1. Inborn tendency (its an inborn biological tendency of human-beings and animals created for self-defence)
2. Physiological mechanism: Annoying , frustrating situations, hot and humid weather, crowding can cause one to get aggressive.
3. Child rearing: If parents have been using physical punishments to control and discipline children, they have the tendency to get aggressive.
4. Frustration: When a person is prevented from achieving/reaching his goal, attaining the object he really wants.

Displacement: is a phenomenon where the aggressor usually chooses a weaker person to express anger who is less likely or unable to react back aggressively.

Causes of aggression: Theory II

Learning: Individuals exhibit aggression as they may find it rewarding as getting their work done faster and getting what they want. Hence they learn through direct reinforcement.

Observing an Aggressive model: A child watching aggression and violence on TV may start imitating.

Anger provoking action: Watching and observing the act of someone insulting, threatening, inappropriate act against weak (women/children), dishonesty, can lead to causing viewer display aggression.

Availability of weapons to express anger: It is observed that if the weapons like knife, gun and stick are available the chances of aggression converting to violence are higher.

Personality Factors: Naturally hot tempered. Eg weak people with low esteem may display aggression to boot their self-esteem and ego.

Also people with very high self-esteem may get aggressive when they feel they are not getting what they deserve.

Cultural factors: in some cultures children and young members are reared teaching them to be aggressive and are praised for displaying that behaviour. Whereas some peace-loving tribes may not appreciate aggression.

Strategies to reduce aggression and violence:

• Parenting/teaching: Parents /teachers taking care that they don’t encourage the aggressive behaviour and use physical punishments to discipline the children.
• Reduce opportunities to observe and watch aggressive behaviour: Children to not be exposed to media, books, cinema carrying violent and aggressive content during formative years.
• Poverty and social justice: Poverty and deprivation being prominent causes of aggression and violence should be addressed in the society and social justice should be implemented to lessen situations that cause frustration.
• Positive attitude towards peace

Health: biological, psychological and social wellbeing.

Impacted by attitudes, beliefs and behaviours associated with physical wellbeing.

1. Cognition: Different people behave differently in addressing physical wellbeing. Some consult doctors for even small ailments like cough and cold, whereas some choose to ignore even serious problems and delay consulting.
2. Level of awareness: knowing about problems and causes can help address them more effectively than being ignorant.
3. Behaviour: Lifestyle related problems and behaviours we indulge into can cause health issues: smoking, drinking alcohol, drug abuse and unsafe sex. Problems related to agronomical issues.
4. Social and Cultural factors: social and cultural differences may influence psychological responses. In Asian, African society’s gender, age and roles also impact the state of health. Especially women in our societies, as they may not be given importance or are expected to be hardy.

Influence of TV:

1. A powerful medium for providing large amount of information in an interesting way and visual form. On one side it helps retain things and gain information faster but reduces reading, writing habits and outdoor activities.
2. While the televised content can help develop deeper understanding for creating and developing things by watching, it also distract young viewers and interfere with their ability to concentrate on one target and social interactions.
3. Can inculcate aggressive and violent behaviours if the content watched of that nature due to higher ability to influence due to visual media. Alternately, can also reduce aggression by watching it as it may create dislike for that seeing to consequences. It is referred as
4. Can encourage consumerist attitude by watching the advertisements and promotion of several objects and options in those.

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 7 , Psychology Class XII

Chapter 7- Social Influence and Group Processes

 

Group: An organized system of two or more individuals who are interacting and are interdependent, who have common motives, have set role relationships amongst the members and have norms that regulate the behaviour of members. Salient features:

• Sense of belonging to the group
• Common motive/goal
• Interdependence amongst members/group
• Satisfying a need through the association
• Ability to influence each other
• Governed by set of norms/rules

Crowd: is also a collection of people but by chance not with a purpose or specific role and responsibility like in a structured group.

Team: is a special kind of group in which in addition to all the salient features of a group, members have:

• Complimentary skills
• Committed to a common goal/purpose
• Mutual accountability towards the purpose
• Collective and coordinated responsibility
• Team work and synergy

Audience: is also collection of people who have assembled for a special purpose. May be to watch theatre or cricket match. features:

• Generally passive
• No inter-involvement
• Only under frenzy, behaves like mob and gets polarized

Q: Why do people join groups?

 

• Security- Sense of comfort and protection. Less vulnerable to threats.
• Status-Associating to an important/powerful group gives one a sense of pride and power.
• Self-esteem– feeling of self worth, positive social identity
• Satisfaction of social/psychological needs– Sense of belonging, needs of attention, love and power.
• Share knowledge and information- groups supplement knowledge by providing forum to share n exchange thoughts.
• Goal achievement– Power of majority, support on meeting goal.

 

Group formation:

Groups are formed due to contact and some form of interaction under following conditions:

Proximity: Repeated interactions with same set of individuals, chance to know them, their interests, attitude. Common interests and attitudes bring people together causing groups.

Similarity: People group up with people with similar interests, due to two reasons (as explained by psychologists). 1. Similar views and interests makes it easier for people two connect and get closer. 2. It also helps individuals in validating their own views and that makes them feel self-assured of their interests and choices.

Common Motives and Goals: When people have common goals to achieve which they cannot pursue alone, they get together and form a group. This helps them in their goal achievement.

Stages of group formation:

As per Tuckman groups pass five developmental sequences:

1. Forming- Group members first meet, try to know eachother, go through uncertainty about achievement of goal.
2. Storming- Deals with conflict among the members on how and what all needs to be done to achieve the target. Who will control what all, roles, hierarchy and leadership.
3. Norming- In this stage group forms norms related to behaviour. This leads to develop a positive group identity.
4. Performing- By this stage structure of the group is evolved, moving towards goal achievement. This could be a last stage as may complete with goal meeting.
5. Adjourning- is the last stage in formal groups where the groups are disbanded formally after the task is accomplished.

 

Structure of a Group:

4 important elements of group structure:

Roles- responsibilities defined for individual members to fulfil under specific conditions.

Norms- expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established/agreed upon or enforced to the members of the group.

Status- is the relative social status given to the group members by virtue of their role, seniority or skill set relevant to the group goal.

Cohesiveness- Togetherness, binding, mutual attraction among group members. More people think, feel and act alike in a group, more cohesive it is. (the phenomenon is called Groupthink)

Type of Groups:

1. Primary and Secondary groups
2. Formal and Informal
3. Ingroup and Outgroup

Primary and Secondary

1. Primary groups are pre-existing formations which are given to the individuals whereas the Secondary groups are those an individual joins by his/her own choice.
2. Primary- more face to face, direct interaction, close proximity and bond. Secondary –relationships are impersonal, indirect and less frequent.
3. Primary – group plays an important role in the development of values and beliefs of individual. Secondary- groups do not contribute much to the individual.
4. Primary group– Individuals do not have the option to choose the group or members. Secondary– It is relatively easier to choose to join and exit the group.

Eg: Primary– Family, religion, caste groups etc

Secondary– Political party, club

Formal and Informal Groups:

Formal- Functions of the group are explicitly stated as in case of an organization.

Roles assigned to members are well defined in explicit manner.

Are more structured.

Informal- No rules, laws or a formal structure. Members share an informal and close relationship.

Ingroup and Outgroup

The term Ingroup refers to one’s own group and Outgroup refers to another group. The members of ingroup refer to themselves as ‘We’ and for outgroup members are referred as ‘They’.

Influence of Group on Individual behaviour

Group Influence is of 2 types:

Social Facilitation- When a person is doing a job alone in presence of others.

The theory suggests that presence of others leads to arousal and motivates individuals to enhance their performance , specially when they are individually evaluated.

Social Loafing- is a phenomenon of Diffusion of responsibility in which individuals start making less effort when working in a group than as individual. .i.e one in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members.

e.g. tug of war. You can never identify who s making how much effort.

Such situations give opportunity to individuals to relax and become free riders.

Reasons of same: Social loafing can happen if

• Group members feel less responsible for the overall task and exert less.
• Motivation of members decreases when they know their contribution will not be evaluated individually.
• The performance of one group is not to be compared with other.
• There is improper coordination or no coordination in the group
• When belonging of same group is not important for members.

Q: How to reduce social loafing?

• Making the efforts of each member identifiable.
• Increasing the pressure to work hard
• Making group members committed to successful task performance
• Increasing the apparent importance or value of a task
• Making people feel that their individual contribution is important
• Strengthening group cohesiveness which increases the motivation for successful group outcome.

Group Polarization:

We all know important decisions are taken by groups and not by individuals. But there is also a phenomenon observed that groups are more likely to take extreme decisions than individuals alone. This is referred as group polarization.

Reasons

• If you have a certain view of a situation and the group members also share the similar opinion, this makes you more strongly favourable towards your belief.
• If group shares your opinion you feel you also have public validation. This is a sort of bandwagon effect.
• With conformity of your views by majority, your own views become strengthened.

Conformity, compliance and Obedience:

Groups and individuals exert influence on us of different kinds:

Social Influence: those processes whereby our attitudes and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people.

On certain occasions we are able to defy influence and in return may influence them to adopt our viewpoint.

This together describes three important group influence processes:

Conformity

Compliance

Obedience

Conformity: Is when you conform to something despite alternate view because of social or peer pressure. E.g. Class friends asking you to sign on a request to allow mobile phones in school. You may agree to do so in order to lose friends, even if you feel it is not a good norm to comply/conform.

Reasons of conformity-

• Following unwritten social norms without questioning as they have been prevalent since generations.
• Not seen as a rebel or different from social group, avoiding disapproval that makes people uncomfortable- answering question- What will people say?
• When you don’t have your own perspective on anything, you go by majority populous view.

Compliance: is a scenario when you agree to do something because you approve of the norm and hence comply. E.g. If your society group requests you to put a sticker on- Say No to Plastic bags, on your bike. You would comply and stick is as you believe it is a good cause to spread.

Identification- is when you comply or conform in order to associate yourself to a group you want to identify with for enhancing your social stature. E.g. You join a group of vegans and promote veganism even if you don’t believe in it as this group is referred as an elite group in your society.

Information-seeking: Another reason to conform/agree is to get knowledge about a certain field/rule etc.

Obedience: is when you comply with some norm because of an order from a senior and powerful member. E.g. your senior teacher gives orders to stop bringing mobiles to school.

From all three- enforcement under Obedience more direct and explicit followed by compliance which is more by choice because of a request you concur which is less direct. Least direct and hence has probability of refusal in conformity as you may not even belief in the norm group/society tries to impose.

Q- What determines the extent of Conformity in a group?

1. Size of the group: Greater conformity in a smaller group and Lower conformity in a large group. Because its easy to spot a non conformist in a smaller group.
2. Size of the minority: Smaller the minority, easy to conform to the majority view due to pressure of being singled out. Applies Asch’s Experiment, where a single non conformist after a few rounds changes his view to the groups view even if he/she is right.
3. Nature of the task: More verifiable the outcome of the group task, lower is the conformity as people like to stick to their view/response. Less verifiable/subjective is the outcome expected, more is the conformity.
4. Public/Private expression of behaviour: Public responses lead to more conformity and private expression can result in lower conformity as people have freedom to express their view without coming under public pressure or being admissible openly.
5. Personality: People who are easy to change their views and gullible are susceptible to conform than those who are independent and intelligent and have confidence in themselves are less likely to change their views or conform easily.

Q- Compliance: Factors why we comply:

1. The foot in the door technique: This technique is widely used by groups to sell their products or ideas to make people comply with that. E.g. offering a small free gift which a person would accept, later making a bigger sales offer to which he could not refuse due to courtesy.
2. The deadline technique: Using last date and deadline fear/anxiety to make people comply with the decisions they may not want to miss.
3. The door in the face technique: This technique is about making a bigger/large request even when it is likely to be turned down, then later making the smaller/actual request which is then accepted due to sympathy.

Q- How Obedience actually works? Why do people obey even when they know its actually going to harm others/them?

1. When people obey orders, they feel since it may not have their compliance and they are simply following instructions, they may not be responsible for those actions.
2. Authority comes from symbols, designations which people find difficult to challenge.
3. Authority increases from lesser to greater levels gradually. When you obey smaller orders, it establishes certain amount of authority. Which later leads to obeying bigger orders too.
4. Situation/time: when events happening at a fast pace in a situation at times you just obey along the way.

Autokinetic

The Asch Experiment

Shariff’s Summer Camp

Cooperation and Competition:

Behaviour in most social situations is either Cooperative or Competitive.

Cooperation: When groups work together to achieve shared goals they cooperate. Also when the rewards are also group rewards

Competition: When members in a group have individual goals and are rewarded accordingly they individually maximize their benefits and work for the realisation of self-interest.

Competition between individuals within a group may result in conflict and disharmony, while competition between the groups may increase harmony, cohesion and solidarity within the group.

Q: Factors that determine whether behaviour would be co-operative or competitive?

1. Reward Structure: Cooperative reward structure which promotes interdependence of members and each is beneficiary of reward.

And group wins reward if all contribute. Competitive reward structure is when one can win it only if others lose/don’t get it.

2. Interpersonal Communication: Good interpersonal communication helps forge better cooperation as it encourages connect, discussion and convincing eachother.
3. Reciprocity: People cooperate to reciprocate for eachother’s favour as a gesture of paying back.

Social Identity: is an answer to the question we may ask ourselves- “Who am I”

Each individual perceives himself as a unique individual and also as a part of society s/he belongs. So our perception about ourselves as a unique individual and as perceived by society we belong is what sums up as our identity.

Social identity is thus that aspect of our self-concept which is based on our membership to a group.

Our identification to a group is means a great deal and is very important. Our social identity places us where and what we are in the larger social context.

e.g. When Indian cricket team wins the cup we feel elated as we associate ourselves with India as a citizen of the country.

As a student you identify yourself as a member of school and also try to imbibe the values of institute as your own values. This also helps to coordinate and regulate your attitudes and behaviour.

Intergroup conflict: Nature and Cause

The negative impact of being members of group is that while people feel affiliated to their own group (ingroup) they start referring to other groups ( Outgroups )as opponents.

This leads to intergroup conflicts which can cost societies and individuals a lot.

E,g, Conflict between countries, religions, castes etc.

Reasons of conflict:

1. Lack of communication/faulty communication– by members of both parties. Leading to suspicion. Lack of trust.
2. Deprivation of one group Vs others– in form of resources, power, influence in overall larger society.
3. Group’s self-acclaimed supremacy: when one group believes that they and their values are better than the other group. E.g religious groups and political parties.
4. Difference or contradicting beliefs/values. Don’t respect the other group and hence conflict
5. Retaliation : to one group’s negative action
6. Biased perceptions: they Vs we
7. Groupism leads to competitiveness
8. Inequity in benefits/rewards

 

Conflict Resolution Strategy:

1. Introduction of Superordinate goals: Larger mutually beneficial goals to encourage cooperation.
2. Altering Perception: by persuasion, educational and media appeals.
3. Increasing intergroup contact/communication
4. Redrawing group boundaries: to make them feel part of the one larger group
5. Negotiations: Trying to find mutually acceptable solutions with help of mediators.
6. Structural Solutions: Removing biases, redistributing the resources, equality according to principles of justice. E.g Upper caste Vs Backward underprivileged castes. Men Vs Women
7. Respect for other group’s norms: Different ethnic, religious groups.